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DS Audio DS 002 Optical Cartridge System

Bringing you the next generation

NEW  SATURN SERIES ECLIPSE EDITION

The Concept Wood turntable furthers the sonic excellence of the award winning Concept turntable and uses a baltic birch, constrained layer plinth that is both visually attractive and sonically rich and smooth. The aluminum machined sub-platter and rear-mounted fine speed adjustments are an upgrade from the original Concept design. The Concept Wood is equipped with the Satisfy Black tonearm, which features a 3-point mechanical bearing, magnetic anti-skate, and hard-wired tonearm cable. You can upgrade to the Satisfy Carbon Fiber tonearm for enhanced musicality and imaging. The Concept is belt-driven by a low noise decoupled DC motor built into the baltic birch plinth. The platter is made of 30mm thick POM. The Concept Wood plays at 33rpm, 45rpm, and 78rpm speeds and selectable by an Electronic Speed Control knob.

No other company has ever retained a phono cartridge model in their product range for so many years. The SPU was used by early broadcasting companies among whom the Ortofon brand name was already well known from the first moving coil system - the Ortofon mono system in the small black A-housing. The so-called “Ortofon sound“ became synonymous with the sound from the SPU, at an early stage. The SPU series embodies the essence of the original Moving Coils and are a perfect solution for the playback of both early and modern and contemporary stereo recordings.

Introducing the #1E & #1S SPU

 Featuring Kiseki MC Cartridges

Featured Products

Bringing you the worlds finest "The GOLDFINGER STATEMENT"

Introducing the all new Andros Deluxe Phonostage

Many years ago Bel Canto made the choice to design compact high quality components set to the highest standards, using the finest materials and call it e.One or Evolution One, adapted for the continuously advancing digital world remaining true to the audio event. Today Bel Canto offers products with more features, flexibility and performance than ever before with both budget and lifestyle in mind.

Since 1979, Oracle Audio has been producing state-of-the-art stereo components. Oracle's first turntable, the AC model, introduced new features and technologies to the analog world. Oracle's Delphi MkI was introduced in 1980. The new Delphi MkVI is the sixth edition of the Delphi's line heritage. Through the years the Delphi won numerous prestigious awards and it has been acclaimed worldwide! The Delphi MkVI was awarded the Analog Grand Prix 2010 Gold Award from Japan, more recently Enjoy the Music.com's Best of 2014 Blue Note Award. To this day the Delphi is still Oracle's flagship product and still serves as a reference in the analog community.

         The result is a dramatic elevation in the resolution            and music realism of all past designs.

• Energy management design
  
• Rubber Elastomer Acoustic Laminate
  
• Elastomer suspended MDS impregnated oil well bearing
  
• ¾ inch polished stainless steel spindle
  
• Inverted adjustable hemispheric feet
  
• Acoustic Isolation Valleys
  
• Elastomer suspended azimuth adjustable tonearm mounting platform
  
• Polyoxymethylene platter
  
• Rubber cork compound mat
  
• Built in Strobe Disk
  
• Elastomer suspended synchronous motor with MU shielding
  
• Outboard Microprocessor Motor Drive 33-45 RPM
  
• Periphery clamping ring and center weight
  
• WOW & Flutter .02% Din 45-507
  
• Speed Accuracy 2 parts per million
  

Utopia are the reference high fidelity headphones which are the result of 35 years of innovation, development and manufacturing of high-end speaker drivers and loudspeakers. Equipped with exclusive technology, they offer striking realism, neutrality, dynamics and clarity, for sound with unrivalled purity.

The VPI Avenger chassis is three layers of bonded acrylic and aluminum with damping material between layers, locked in by 3 isolation steel corner posts, 3 bolts, and the massive bearing assembly. The corner posts which hold the tonearms (up to three will fit) have adjustable machined knobs giving the user the ability to easily raise and lower the height to level the table. Fully adjustable armboards are made from 5/8” 6061 aluminum for rigidity and grounding. The table can mount up to three arms, any manufacture's brand, and any length.

The Kiseki Blue is the first new style Kiseki cartridge but with a shorter body and machined out of solid aluminium and features pure iron coils and a solid boron cantilever. The Purpleheart is the second  incarnation of the original from the 1980s. The body is machined out of solid Purpleheart wood. The motor uses technologies to create the perfect balance.

Kuzma Ltd first started production in 1982. Founded by Franc Kuzma, it was born of his interest in music combined with a mechanical engineers education which, together with experience working on acoustic transducers, culminated in an interest in producing high quality playback from records. All Kuzma products share the same, no compromise design philosophy , in order to produce products which are simple to use, reliable and capable of the highest quality of analogue playback. This policy extends to the choice of only the highest quality materials and the high level of craftsmanship.

Since 1987, Cardas Audio has manufactured premium audio cables and component parts. George Cardas founded the company to perfect audio cables using ultra-pure materials, innovative Golden ratio resonance control techniques and uniquely insightful solutions to transmission line problems. The legendary connections and craftsmanship at Cardas reflect George's pursuit of perfection.

Hand Crafted Record and Stylus Brushes From Germany

• KUZMA
  

• LAST FACTORY
  

• ​LEHMANN
  

• LEJONKLOU
  

• LEVIN DESIGN BRUSHES
  

• ​LYRA

• MANLEY LABS

• MERRILL WILLIAMS
  

• MIYAJIMA
  

• MUSICAL FIDELITY
  

• MUSICAL SURROUNDINGS

• NEAT ACOUSTICS
  

• NOTTINGHAM ANALOGUE
  

• ORACLE AUDIO
  

• ORIGIN LIVE

• ORTOFON

• OYAIDE
  

• PRIMA LUNA
  

• PRIMARE
  

• PEAR AUDIO ANALOGUE
  

• REED TONEARMS
  

FEATURING THE KASCODE ONE TUBE PHONO STAGE

• CRYSTAL CABLE
  

• DR. FIECKERT
  

• DS AUDIO
  

• EAT
  

• FOCAL
  

• FURUTECH
  

• GRADO
  

• HANA CARTRIDGES
  

• HANNL
  

• HANSS ACOUSTICS
  

• HELIUS DESIGNS
  

• HRS
  

• IKEDA
  

• ISOTEK
  

• ISOACOUSTICS
  

• JE AUDIO
  

• JELCO

• JOSEPH AUDIO

• ​KISEKI
  

• KOESTU
  

• KONTAK CLEANER
  

The 12JT Turbo expands upon AMG’s patented tonearm design with improved sound and functionality. The new larger bearing assembly houses both the unique vertical bearing and a larger horizontal axle, featuring dual micro-ball bearing assemblies for enhanced stability and reduced friction. The use of thumb scews makes set up a breeze.

 Featuring the R.E.A.L. 101.3 Turntable

Brands We Represent

Keeping the incredible sound of the popular SL phono cartridge, Hana introduces the SL Mono, which is now available with twin coils that pick-up mono vinyl signals through the Shibata stylus, creating new world sound from traditional days.

Based on the award-winning Hana SL stereo MC cartridge, the new SL Mono incorporates the same alnico magnets, Shibata stylus, aluminum cantilever, and high-purity copper wire. Hand-built in Japan by Excel Corporation, utilizing 50-years of Japanese craftsmanship, the SL Mono moving coil is oriented to optimize playback of original and re-issued mono LPs.

Featuring the new Hana Mono Cartridge

Bringing you the latest from Verity Audio

Verity Audio has been designing and building some of the world’s finest crafted and most musically involving loudspeakers for nearly 20 years. Located in Quebec, Canada, co-founders Julien Pelchat and Bruno Bouchand have incorporated their love of music in the pursuit of ultimate loudspeaker perfection and simplicity. “Simplicity” has meant being critical of the objectives, design, construction, and performance factors that really matter while understanding how to best balance every element of the production process and finished design. In fact, achieving simplicity is inherently complex but that achievement ultimately offers rewarding results. Offering pure and genuine quality in this manner has always been fundamental to Verity.

Presenting AMG's newest turntable "The GYRO"

​​   Welcome to A/V Solutions,

A/V Solutions is a family owned retail audio company located in Pleasanton, California 45 miles east of San Francisco. With over 30 years of experience in high performance audio development, electrical wiring expertise and audio retail, A/V Solutions was established for the purpose of providing high end audio products that meet important sonic performance standards, build quality and fall within a real world price point.

For the analog enthusiast we represent many of the finest High End Audio manufacturers in the world, on display are twenty three turntables, twenty seven tonearms, more than fifty cartridges and a wide range of phono stages for your evaluation. We also offer our clients valuable services and support such as turntable set up, component guidance and more..... 

Thank you for considering A/V Solutions

​

Sincerely
A/V Solutions

With over 45 years of practice, we're dedicated to making sure that you are able get exactly what they need and deserve. 

The Class A all tube signal path utilizes the finest NOS special quality (SQ) tubes, creating one of the lowest noise fully integrated tube phono stages available. ​Fully passive RIAA equalization is implemented with hand matched components for not only extremely tight RIAA accuracy, but also matched performance between channels. Tight RIAA accuracy combined with a wide bandwidth open loop design provides superior transient response allowing you to hear deeper into your favorite records. ​All tubes are matched in house at their operating conditions across 4 key parameters. The Kaskode One is extremely flexible offering both Moving Magnet (MM) and optional Moving Coil (MC) support in a single unit. MM mode gives 46dB of gain whereas MC mode has user configurable step-up transformers with either 60dB, 66dB or 72dB of gain. For MC mode, each step-up ratio has a wide range of input resistances for properly loading your MC cartridge. All cartridge loading options are controlled by dip-switches for easy selection and maximum felxability. MSRP $6500

Introducing the SPL Phonitor XE headphone amp

Aurender music players Incorporate the latest in technology including solid state drive cached playback, terabytes of internal storage, bit-perfect digital outputs with virtually no jitter or noise, Aurender Music Players are the ideal convenient solution for high resolution music collections and  supports DSD (DSF, DFF), WAV, FLAC, ALAC, APE, AIFF, M4A and other major formats at native bit and sampling rates. All Aurender models include the dedicated Aurender conductor App, hailed by reviewers worldwide for its performance and intuitive operation.

Clear are Focal's brand new open-back high-fidelity headphones with continuing in the spirit of Utopia and Elear and using the best of Focal technologies, Clear offers the sensation of listening to your favorite music in a space that no longer has limits. Discover the emotion of music, thanks to the Clear's ability to recreate the tiniest details of the recording.

BRYSTON announces the introduction of the Cubed Series amplifiers replacing the Squared Series that made its debut in 2009 and bringing significant performance improvements.

The Cubed Series is a statement design platform ideal for music enthusiasts and home theater installations.  The new line-up will roll out in phases, with the 300 watt stereo 4B³ and 600 watt mono 7B³ the first to be introduced. Both models feature balance and unbalanced inputs, selectable gain at 23dB or 29dB and convection cooling with no fans or moving parts

• SHELTER
  

• SIGNEL PROJECT AUDIO
  

• SILTECH
  

• SILVER AUDIO
  

• SOLID TECH
  

• SOLIDSTEEL
  

• SOUNDSMITH
  

• SPL HEADPHONE AMPS
  

• SUTHERLAND ENGINEERING
  

• TARGET

• THORENS

• TRIODE CORP. JAPAN
  

• TRI-PLANER

• UNITY AUDIO DESIGN

• VERITY AUDIO
  

• VIBEX
  

• VICOUSTIC

• VPI INDUSTRIES
  

• WBT

• WIREWORLD

• ​ZESTO AUDIO

Soundsmith is a specialty audio manufacturer located about an hour north of New York City. Founded in 1972, Soundsmith has achieved an enviable reputation in the audiophile world for outstanding sonic quality and extremely high-value products. Perhaps best known now for their work restoring cartridges and for their Strain Gauge and Fixed Coil cartridges, every Soundsmith product is hand-crafted in Soundsmith’s Peekskill, NY factory by a carefully selected team of artisans and engineers.

The HP10 is a high performance stereo phono amplifier employing low noise solid-state semiconductor devices for signal amplification and a tube amplifier for output buffer. The HP10 offers exceptional performance in terms of transparency, dynamic and extraordinary imaging capability at its price range. The MC and MM input signals are handled by separate MC and MM phono amplifiers. They are independent amplifiers that have no common parts sharing between them. Therefore, this will ensure shortest signal path and no switch is used at the low level input signal.

Since MC and MM phono amplifiers are independent, each amplifier contains its own RIAA equalizer. We have chosen passive RIAA equalizer for HP10 because the elements of the equalizer have less coloration to the sound compared with active feedback RIAA equalizer. A 6H30 tube buffer amplifier is used at the output. The 6H30 has very wide bandwidth, low distortion and low output impedance. It greatly enhances the sound of HP10 phono amplifier.

Since 2003, PrimaLuna has created tube amplifiers with a unique construction found nowhere else. PrimaLuna technologies bring you closer to the music at a price you won't believe.

PrimaLuna has pioneered numerous technologies to redefine tube amplification. From increased reliability and tube life all the way to our unique, signature sound. PrimaLuna does this by using a true and sophisticated Adaptive AutoBias system while running tubes at the minimum dissipation (power) and giving more slam and bandwidth through superior output transformer design. 

PrimaLuna employs Point to Point Wiring on all products. The entire signal path, including resistors and capacitors, is painstakingly hand wired with heavy-gauge cable by craftsman.

PrimaLuna's Adaptive AutoBias is a true, smart technology. It employs an array of sensors to monitor tubes and make adjustments seamlessly in real time. Adaptive AutoBias is completely passive and NOT in the signal path. The result is low to no maintenance, long tube life, and the lowest possible distortion for amazing sound.

All PrimaLuna products are available in Black or Silver front face and have a two year warranty on amplifiers and preamplifiers that covers parts and labor. CD Players have a one year warranty that covers parts and labor. Tubes are guaranteed for six months.

 Phonitor XE Headphone Amplifier

The SPL Phonitor xe is the ultimate standalone device for headphone enthusiasts who want the perfect solution without any compromises.

The Phonitor xe is the first Phonitor headphone amplifier which can be equipped with the brand-new DAC768.

This optional internal Uber-DAC qualifies the Phonitor xe to convert with outstanding sonic performance.

An audio resolution of 32 bits and PCM sample rates up to 768kHz as well as DSD – up to DSD256 – are the impressive numbers.

The analog side of the converter also is top-notch:
Like in the Director DAC & Preamplifier. the active Lowpass-Filter is built in a 120V-Voltair-Technology design.

Welcoming the latest from Pear Audio Blue Turntables

Clearaudio has created a new articulating washing/vacuuming system that incorporates sonic vibrations to better deep scrub the record groove. These cleaning applicators automatically adapt to different thickness records, assuring better performance and ease of use. Clearaudio’s R&D team has learned that this approach performs a more thorough job of cleaning without risking damage to the vinyl record, versus ultrasonic cleaners commonly used to clean hard materials such as jewelry and glass. The sonically articulating cleaning pads can be easily removed for washing as well as replacing the micro-felt strips.

The advantages of a double-sided record cleaning machine include time savings and protecting the cleaned record side from being in contact with a dirty surface. With both automatic and manual modes, the Double Matrix Professional Sonic allows you to run the entire cleaning cycle at the touch of a button, or you can manually control each step of the process via the user-friendly controls. Automatic cleaning is available in both normal and 2x mode for records requiring extra maintenance. Wash and vacuum cycles are bi-directional and you can control both platter direction and speed. An anti-static brush prevents static build-up on your cleaned discs.

Superb Cartridges, Premium Service, and an Unparalleled Warranty

The Andros Deluxe Phonostage is an exciting blend of Zesto’s award winning Phonostages, taking the very best attributes from both. It’s developed from the same footprint of the Andros 1.2 Phonostage and many of the internal features of the Andros Tèssera Phonostage, yet maintaining its own unique sonic personality. MSRP $6900

Featuring the new HP-10 Phono Stage

The Goldfinger Statement is Clearaudio’s flagship phono cartridge, heralding a new era in hi-fi analogue music reproduction. It features twelve magnets arranged in their patented ring configuration. The generator coils are painstakingly wound using pure 24-karat gold wire. These features collectively generate an intense magnetic field that result in:

• significantly reduced moving mass
• greater sound performance
• increased dynamic range
• ultra-high resolution of even the finest details

The Goldfinger Statement is also the first moving coil cartridge in the world to integrate electromagnetic field (EMF) shielding of the generator assembly, isolating unwanted noise from outside.  MSRP $16,000

The Prime Signature is the next step up from the Prime, which took the world by storm 2 years ago during its initial release. It features an upgraded JMW 3D-10 Reference arm in a “metallic black” gloss finish with Nordost Reference wire. The chassis consists of an aluminum plate sandwiched between a composite material for improved dampening. In addition, both the motor housing and all Delrin posts and armboards were upgraded to a heftier stainless steel.

The new DS Audio DS 002 optical phono cartridge combines the latest optical cartridge technology with a more budget-friendly price point. Featuring an aluminum cantilever and classic Shibata stylus, the DS 002’s optical screen is positioned closer to the stylus–a breakthrough in phono cartridge design allowing for more accurate reading of the information within the record groove.

For orders, support and pricing contact us at jbwhitlock1@aol.com or

  call 925-425-0450 Monday thru Saturday 9:00 am to 8:00 pm PST  

Auditions are available by appointment only Monday thru Saturday 9:00 am to 5:00 pm PST 
We Accept

To celebrate Ortofon's100 years of masterful analog research and technology and in continuation of the Ortofon design tradition we are proud to introduce the SPU Century

The Performance DC Wood is the latest turntable offering from Clearaudio combining the popular Performance DC turntable with features and technology from their higher tier Ovation and Innovation series turntables.

A mass-loaded Baltic birch plinth gives the Performance DC Wood a stunning visual appearance while also controlling resonance. Three Innovation series locking leveling aluminum cone feet provide a stable base and acoustic isolation. The Performance DC Wood incorporates precision machined aluminum sub-platter fitted to a 40mm-thick POM platter, Clearaudio’s patented, ultra-smooth Ceramic Magnetic Bearing (CMB), and a decoupled DC motor with electronic speed selection. 

The Performance DC Wood’s 33, 45, and 78 rpm speeds are selected by blue illuminated buttons, ergonomically integrated into the front left of the chassis. Precision adjustability is possible for each speed via user-accessible trim pots. The Performance DC Wood’s interchangeable armboard design can easily accommodate a variety of tonearms including the Clearaudio  Verify Carbon Fiber, Satisfy Carbon Fiber, Clarify, Magnify and TT-5 linear tonearm.

Delphi Mk.VI Second Generation

​Featuring KUZMA Turntables and Tonearms

Featuring the Concept Wood and Performance DC Wood Turntables

Following on from Utopia and keeping in line with all Focal loudspeakers, the design of Sopra is the result of a very close collaboration between designers and engineers. The Sopra line is destined for sound enthusiasts. When expectations are so high, the design must provide solutions which go far beyond aesthetics and shape. This represents a great deal of work in terms of industrial design, which must serve acoustic experts and flavour performance, whilst bringing together the qualities expected of an object which will be integrated into very elegant interiors and decors.

Elear are audiophile open-backed headphones manufactured in France by Focal. Inspired by the best technology and acoustic research that went into designing Utopia, their flagship headphones, and offer truly exceptional performance. Be inspired by the sound of a high-fidelity system with a pair of Elear headphones, for hours of listening pleasure.

Get better sound from your computer and mobil devises

Bringing you the New Quintet Cartridges

Each of the five Quintet cartridges has its own individual sonic expression, and all five models together represent the ensemble of five classic variations:

MC Quintet Mono is a true mono cartridge for playing mono microgroove vinyl records MSRP $524

MC Quintet Red is an all-purpose cartridge that delivers open, dynamic sound with a slight touch of warmth MSRP $314

MC Quintet Blue adds more dynamics and resolution, sounds more open and reproduces more details MSRP $524

MC Quintet Bronze adds even more details and resolution but in a very evenhanded way that pays respect to all elements MSRP $839

MC Quintet Black is the best of everything, true to the groove with resolution and accurate insight into each recording MSRP $999

The AMG Giro turntable features the AMG 9W2 9” tonearm and brings AMG’s sonic and visual excellence to a new, more affordable price point. The belt-driven platter is a combination of synthetic and aluminum materials and uses the decoupled spindle design of the highly-acclaimed AMG Viella turntable.

The Eclipse edition is the next evolution of our industry standard Saturn Series of components. Our all-tube Rhea phono stage, Calypso line stage, and Janus full function preamp were introduced in 2002. The Atlas power amps, a hybrid design featuring an octal base tube input with bi-polar output stages, followed in 2007. Our Saturn Series digital source components are the Pandora DAC and Romulus DAC/CD Player, which recently was awarded the International Press 2015 Award. Aesthetix components all share the attributes of outstanding electrical and mechanical engineering with special attention to Power Supply design, making them the ideal platform for pushing the sonic envelope. The Eclipse upgrades consist of the use of new exotic Stealthcap™ capacitors; electrical upgrades including hand-tuned capacitors, super-matched output devices and distributed node technology; advanced mechanical chassis isolation; and sophisticated electrical signal grounding in the power supply. 

• ​ACOUSTIC REVIVE
  

• ACOUSTICAL SYSTEMS

• ACOUSTIC ZEN
  

• AESTHETIX
  

• AMG TURNTABLES
  

• ANALOGUE WORKS
  

• ASC

• AUDIA FLIGHT
  

• AUDIO CREATIVE
  

• AUDIO PHYSICS
  

• AUDIENCE

• AUDIO DESK
  

• AUDIOQUEST
  

• AURENDER
  

• BANDWIDTH AUDIO
  

• BEL CANTO DESIGN
  

• BENZ MICRO

• BRYSTON
  

• CARDAS
  

• ​CHARISMA​​
  

• CLEARAUDIO
  

Great sound doesn't have to cost a fortune!

One of the key elements in producing a superb audio system is to have a very low noise floor and everything that happens to reproduce a musical performance is counting on this fact. How much information is retrieved, amplified, and delivered into the room is in a significant way dependent on a very low noise level at every location in the audio system. HRS products and their complete system approach will preserve the information, timing, decay structure, and spatial information of your favorite music in the manner originally created by the artist.

The Harmonic Resolution Systems isolation bases and stands are a primary element for significantly reducing structural borne noise in any audio or video component. All HRS productss are designed based on a unique concept invented by Michael Latvis of Harmonic Resolution Systems.

Introducing the new AMG 12JT Turbo tonearm and Fortissimo armboard

Harmonic Resolution Systems

A/V Solutions
THE ANALOG PLACE

Featuring the next generation "the CUBE"

Limited production of 250 (excepting Pre-Orders MSRP $4999.00)

The massive Fortissimo machined armboard adds a second tonearm to the AMG Viella turntable. Attaching to the Viella platter-bearing housing to establish proper geometry, the tower can be rotated 180˚ for using both 9” and 12” tonearms. Three leveling feet, accessible through the top, and an integral spirit level assure a solid platform

The Dragonfly bridges the gap between die-hard audiophiles and mainstream music lovers. DragonFly plugs into a computer’s USB port to bypass the computer’s compromised audio circuitry and delivers more natural and beautiful sound to headphones, powered speakers, and complete audio systems. The DragonFly was named Stereophile’s 2012 “Computer Audio Component of the Year” and 2012 “Budget Component of the Year;” Tone Audio’s 2012 “Digital Product of the Year;” Computer Audiophile’s 2012 “Computer Audiophile Product of the Year;” AudioStream’s “Greatest Bits;” and What Hi-Fi?’s 2014 “Product of the Year.” Perhaps most memorably, DigitalAudioReview.net’s John Darko quipped: “A DAC with the DragonFly’s performance at the DragonFly’s price point is as rare as rocking horse.

Discover the Clear Beyond series of cables

CLEARAUDIO DOUBLE MATRIX PROFESSIONAL SONIC

The SPU was launched back in 1958 in response to the demand for cartridges to reproduce newly-introduced stereo records. The SPU immediately set the standard for professional and audiophile applications and paved the way for the next 60 years of high-end cartridge design.

The SPU is the only Ortofon stereo cartridge that has survived since 1958 in its original form and from all over the world has gained a reputation second to none for its outstanding analogue sound reproduction.

With the SPU Century, the bar is raised for both its modern and vintage counterparts. The new Ortofon SPU Century has gone to the next level by reducing unwanted vibrations within the cartridge. Our extensive knowledge of vibration and characteristics of different materials, competences in magnetism, mechanical design and new technologies has been applied for optimization of this model.

Pear Analogue Blue turntables are hand-built in Slovenia by Peter Mezek, and is subjected to extensive quality control before leaving the shop.The design of Pear Audio Blue turntables and tonearms follow a key philosophy, achieve a magnificent marriage of materials. Each material, on its own, might be common and unremarkable, but the way materials perform together, to maintain the proper phase of energy throughout the system, is how the magic begins, from the ultra-low torque motor, to the mechanically damped unipivot tone-arms, these seemingly simple-looking turntables have loads of clever engineering skill concealed within them.